![]() Our results support the hypothesis of a causal effect of education on both current smoking status and smoking cessation. Similarly, education levels were higher among former smoking than among currently smoking co-twins, and this difference was larger within DZ pairs. Within twin pairs, education levels were lower among the currently smoking than among the never smoking co-twins and this education difference was larger within DZ than MZ pairs. Data from 18 cohorts including 10,527 monozygotic (MZ) and same-sex dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs discordant for education and smoking were analyzed by linear fixed effects regression models. ![]() We tested the causality between education and smoking using the natural experiment of discordant twin pairs allowing to optimally control for background genetic and childhood social factors. ![]() Scientific Reports volume 12, Article number: 13148 ( 2022) Smoking remains associated with education after controlling for social background and genetic factors in a study of 18 twin cohorts
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